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220

The process of obtaining statistical data from documents not primarily designed for this purpose is called extraction¹. In general, whatever its source, statistical information is subjected to processing² which may be manual³, mechanical⁴, electronic⁵ or a combination of these modes. Manual processing involves no equipment more complex than the desk calculator⁶. Mechanical processing uses tabulating machines (224-2) or punch card (224-3) machines; electronic processing uses computers (132-2*). Regardless of the mode of processing, certain types of operations⁷ must be performed including editing⁸ of the data, tabulation (130-6*) and calculation (132-2) and table preparation⁹. These operations are made more or less complex depending on the mode of processing which is selected.

• 1. Extraction, n. - extract, v.
• 2. Processing ,n. - process, v. The terms to process information, data processing, are used widely.
• 8. Editing, n. - edit, v. In English, the term refers to an operation performed either on the basic document or on the machine - readable data, to correct inconsistencies or eliminate omissions. In French, edition refers to the stage of table preparation.

221

Editing the data usually requires the prior coding¹ of a certain number of entries on the basic document². The coding scheme³ establishes a correspondence between an entry and its translation into numeric or alphabetic codes. The code book collects and describes the coding schemes used with a particular set of basic documents. A coding scheme is usually designed to facilitate later groupings of the data. In contrast, a classification⁴ is a mere list of individual codes where each heading⁵ is given one or several numbers. After the data have been coded, they constitute a file (213-3*) which can be converted to machine readable form. The second stage in the editing consists in the cleaning⁶ of the file, through elimination of errors by validity checks⁷ and consistency checks⁷; these can be internal checks within each statistical unit (cf. 110-1) or may result from the comparison of different units. After errors have been identified, they may be corrected in the original document or the file by some automatic procedure.

• 1. Code, n. - code, v. - coding, n.

222

The edited data are rarely used directly; they are subjected to grouping (130-7) and tabulation (130-6*), and this normally leads to a presentation in the form of statistical tables (131-4). These may be the outcome of sorting¹, either manual or mechanical, resulting in the reorganization of the elements in a set according to predetermined rules, or more simply of a systematic count of the elements presenting a selected characteristic. The choice of elements or of characteristics may be based on the values of one or several quantitative attributes, or on the modalities² of one or several qualitative attributes. Few studies can do without computation, simple or complex, isolated or repetitive, and the computer (225-2) now allows calculation that would have been too lengthy by hand. These capabilities have led to the development of techniques of data analysis³. Deterministic and stochastic models (cf. 730) often require considerable computations, and so do simulations (730-6).

• 1. Sorting, n. - sort, v.

223

The stage of table preparation (220-9) aims at making the results of processing conveniently available in the form of listings¹, numerical tables (131-4) or charts (155-2), all of which are commonly used in descriptive statistics². The use of computer graphing³ and computer cartography³ permits the mass production of graphical presentation at a preliminary stage.

224

Purely mechanical processing (220-4) did not involve the use of electronic equipment¹ which has come to replace the earlier tabulating machines² or unit record machines² and is much more versatile. In most instances the information is coded (221-1*) first, and then transcribed onto punch cards³ by using a keypunch⁴. A card verifier⁵ is a device used to check the accuracy of the punching. These two types of unit record machines remain in common use since the punch cards are still a frequent way of entering data into the computer. The use of other types of unit record equipment such as the card sorter⁶ and the tabulator⁷ has declined. Increasingly, the data are entered directly on magnetic tapes (cf. 226-4) or disks (cf. 226-5) without resorting to punch cards.

• 3. Punch cards or punched cards.
• 4. Keypunch or card punch.

225

Demographic research depends heavily on electronic data processing¹ using the computer². The term hardware³ refers to the physical component, whereas software⁴ supplies the user⁵ with ways to have access to the computer. Computer specialists⁶ include programmers⁷ who write programs⁸ conceived by system analysts⁹.

226

The hardware (225-3) components of a computer (225-2) include one or several central processing units¹, a central memory², one or more mass storage devices³ which use magnetic tapes⁴ or disks⁵ and a set of input - output devices⁶. The software (225-4) components include the operating system⁷, which has the task of efficiently managing the available facilities⁸ for the users (225-5) running the users’ programs⁹ and the processing programs¹⁰ which are preestablished programs (225-8) designed for the solution of standard problems.

227

A user (225-5) can process his problem by writing a program (225-8) in a general programming language¹ such as Fortran, Cobol, Basic or Algol, or a specific language, designed to use the processing programs (226-9) stored in the central memory (226-2) of the computer such as a data base management system² used to create and maintain a data bank², a survey processing program³ or a statistical package⁴. The devices which are used to enter and receive information from the computer can differ according to the mode of processing. In batch processing⁷, the normal input and output units are the card reader⁵ and the line printer⁶. A console⁸ is the normal input and output unit for processing in a timesharing mode⁹. In either instance the entry units may be spatially separated from the computer and processing under these conditions is accomplished by remote terminal¹⁰.

• 1. In addition to programming languages as defined above, other types of languages can be used to manipulate the operating system; these are usually referred to as job control language.

228

Any information processed in a computer (225-2) undergoes three main phases. First, data entry¹ or input¹ which may be done by using punched cards (224-3*) or by using an on line² device such as a keyboard console (227-8). Data which is already stored in the computer may be accessed from either central memory (226-2) or from one of the mass storage devices (226-3) and used as input data. The second phase, processing (220-2), is divided into two main types: numerical processing⁴ and non-numerical processing⁵. Statistical or arithmetic computations are normally the operations contained in the former while data manipulation operations are the focus in the latter. In a third phase, occasionally referred to as output phase, the processed results⁶ or output⁶ may be printed out on the line printer (227-6) or saved as a file on a mass storage device (226-3) for further processing. Results may also be diverted to a plotter⁷ to obtain processed results in the form of a graph or a figure.